Research efforts related to dry particulates in sliding contacts are reviewed. In the tribology community, there are primarily two types of dry particulate lubricants that are studied—granular and powder. Granular lubricants usually refer to dry, cohesionless, hard particles that transfer momentum and accommodate surface velocity differences through shearing and rolling at low shear rates, and collisions at high shear rates. Powder lubricants refer to dry, cohesive, soft particles that accommodate surface velocity differences mostly by adhering to surfaces and shearing in the bulk medium, in a manner similar to hydrodynamic fluids. Spanning the past five decades, this review proposes a classification system for the scientific works in the dry particulate tribology literature in terms of theory, experiments, and numerical simulations. It also suggests that these works can be further categorized based on their tribosystem geometry—annular, parallel, and converging.
1.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1995, “The Quasi-Hydrodynamic Mechanism of Powder Lubrication. 3: On Theory and Rheology of Triboparticulates
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 38
(2
), pp. 269
–276
.2.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1991, “The Rheology and Hydrodynamics of Dry Powder Lubrication
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 34
(3
), pp. 433
–439
.3.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Brewe
, D.
, 1995, “Performance of Powder-Lubricated Journal Bearings With MoS2 Powder—Experimental-Study of Thermal Phenomena
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 117
(3
), pp. 506
–512
.4.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Brewe
, D. E.
, 1996, “Performance of a Powder Lubricated Journal Bearing With WS2 Powder: Experimental Study
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 118
(3
), pp. 484
–491
.5.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Heshmat
, C. A.
, 1999, “Effect of Slider Geometry on the Performance of a Powder Lubricated Bearing
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 42
(3
), pp. 640
–646
.6.
Higgs
, C. F.
, and Heshmat
, H.
, 2001, “Characterization of Pelletized MoS2 Powder Particle Detachment Process
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 123
(3
), pp. 455
–461
.7.
Higgs
, C. F.
, Heshmat
, C. A.
, and Heshmat
, H. S.
, 1999, “Comparative Evaluation of MoS2 and WS2 as Powder Lubricants in High Speed, Multi-Pad Journal Bearings
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 121
(3
), pp. 625
–630
.8.
Farr
, J. P. G.
, 1975, “Molybdenum-Disulfide in Lubrication—Review
,” Wear
0043-1648, 35
(1
), pp. 1
–22
.9.
Kaur
, R. G.
, and Heshmat
, H.
, 2002, “100mm Diameter Self-Contained Solid/Powder Lubricated Auxiliary Bearing Operated at 30,000rpm
,” Lubr. Eng.
0024-7154, 58
(6
), pp. 13
–20
.10.
Kaur
, R. G.
, Higgs
, C. F.
, and Heshmat
, H.
, 2001, “Pin-on-Disc Tests of Pelletized Molybdenum Disulfide
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 44
(1
), pp. 79
–87
.11.
Elrod
, H. G.
, 1988, “Granular Flow as a Tribological Mechanism—A First Look
,” Interface Dynamics, Proc. of the Leeds-Lyon Conference
, Butterworth
, Oxford, England
, p. 75
.12.
Higgs
, C. F.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 2004, “Granular Flow Lubrication: Continuum Modeling of Shear Behavior
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 126
(3
), pp. 499
–510
.13.
Yu
, C. M.
, Craig
, K.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 1994, “Granular Collision Lubrication
,” J. Rheol.
0148-6055, 38
(4
), pp. 921
–936
.14.
Yu
, C. M.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 1996, “Granular Collisional Lubrication: Effect of Surface Roughness, Particle Size and Solids Fraction
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 39
(3
), pp. 537
–546
.15.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Walton
, J. F.
, 1991, “Basics of Powder Lubrication in High-Temperature Powder-Lubricated Dampers
,” Proc. of International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition, June 3-6 1991
, Orlando, ASME
, New York, pp. 372
–382
.16.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Walton
, J. F.
, 1992, “High-Temperature Powder-Lubricated Dampers for Gas-Turbine Engines
,” J. Propul. Power
0748-4658, 8
(2
), pp. 449
–456
.17.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Walton
, J. F.
, 1993, “The Basics of Powder Lubrication in High-Temperature Powder-Lubricated Dampers
,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
0742-4795, 115
(2
), pp. 372
–382
.18.
Fusaro
, R. L.
, 1989, “Comparison of the Tribological Properties of Fluorinated Cokes and Graphites
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 32
(2
), pp. 121
–132
.19.
Hirata
, A.
, Igarashi
, M.
, and Kaito
, T.
, 2004, “Study on Solid Lubricant Properties of Carbon Onions Produced by Heat Treatment of Diamond Clusters or Particles
,” Tribol. Int.
0301-679X, 37
(11-12
), pp. 899
–905
.20.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1993, “Rolling and Sliding Characteristics of Powder-Lubricated Ceramics at High-Temperature and Speed
,” Lubr. Eng.
0024-7154, 49
(10
), pp. 791
–797
.21.
Tsai
, H. J.
, and Jeng
, Y. R.
, 2006, “Characteristics of Powder Lubricated Finite-Width Journal Bearings: A Hydrodynamic Analysis
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 128
(2
), pp. 351
–357
.22.
Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Tichy
, J. A.
, 2001, “Lubrication With Granular Flow: Continuum Theory, Particle Simulations, Comparison With Experiment
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 123
(4
), pp. 777
–784
.23.
Cizaire
, L.
, Vacher
, B.
, Le Mogne
, T.
, Martin
, J. M.
, Rapoport
, L.
, Margolin
, A.
, and Tenne
, R.
, 2002, “Mechanisms of Ultra-Low Friction by Hollow Inorganic Fullerene-Like MoS2 Nanoparticles
,” Surf. Coat. Technol.
0257-8972, 160
(2-3
), pp. 282
–287
.24.
Leshchinsky
, V.
, Alyoshina
, E.
, Lvovsky
, M.
, Volovik
, Y.
, Lapsker
, I.
, Tenne
, R.
, and Rapoport
, L.
, 2002, “Inorganic Nanoparticle Impregnation of Self Lubricated Materials
,” Int. J. Powder Metall.
0020-7535, 38
(5
), pp. 50
–57
.25.
Rapoport
, L.
, Fleischer
, N.
, and Tenne
, R.
, 2005, “Applications of WS2 (MoS2) Inorganic Nanotubes and Fullerene-Like Nanoparticles for Solid Lubrication and for Structural Nanocomposites
,” J. Mater. Chem.
0959-9428, 15
(18
), pp. 1782
–1788
.26.
Rapoport
, L.
, Fleischer
, N.
, and Tenne
, R.
, 2005, “Tribological Applications of WS2 (MoS2) Inorganic Fullerene-Like Nanoparticles as Solid Lubrication
,” Proc. of World Tribology Congress III
, Washington, D.C., ASME
, New York
, pp. 607
–608
.27.
Rapoport
, L.
, Leshchinsky
, V.
, Lvovsky
, M.
, Lapsker
, I.
, Volovik
, Y.
, Feldman
, Y.
, Popovitz-Biro
, R.
, and Tenne
, R.
, 2003, “Superior Tribological Properties of Powder Materials With Solid Lubricant Nanoparticles
,” Wear
0043-1648, 255
(7-12
), pp. 794
–800
.28.
Higgs
III, C. F.
, Jasti
, V.
, Racusen
, C.
, Heller
, C.
, Cohen
, N.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 2006, “On the Behavior of Granular Materials in Rough Wheel Contacts on Mars
,” 10th ASCE Aerospace Division International Conference on Engineering, Construction and Operations in Challenging Environments (Earth & Space 2006), Houston.29.
Massoudi
, M.
, and Phuoc
, T. X.
, 2005, “Numerical Solution to the Shearing Flow of Granular Materials Between Two Plates
,” Int. J. Non-Linear Mech.
0020-7462, 40
(1
), pp. 1
–9
.30.
Wyszynski
, M. L.
, and Bridgwater
, J.
, 1993, “Effect of Solid Lubricants on Powder Attrition and Breakage
,” Tribol. Int.
0301-679X, 26
(5
), pp. 311
–317
.31.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1992, “The Quasi-Hydrodynamic Mechanism of Power Lubrication. 1: Lubricant Flow Visualization
,” Lubr. Eng.
0024-7154, 48
(2
), pp. 96
–104
.32.
McKeague
, K. T.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 1996, “An Analysis of Powder Lubricated Slider Bearings
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 118
(1
), pp. 206
–214
.33.
Higgs
, C. F.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 2004, “Granular Flow Lubrication: Continuum Modeling of Shear Behavior
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 126
(3
), pp. 499
–510
.34.
Iordanoff
, I.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2004, “Granular lubrication: Toward an Understanding of the Transition Between Kinetic and Quasi-Fluid Regime
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 126
(1
), pp. 137
–145
.35.
Jang
, J. Y.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2005, “On the Granular Lubrication Theory
,” Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
1364-5021, 461
(2062
), pp. 3255
–3278
.36.
Jang
, J. Y.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2006, “On the Role of Enduring Contact in Powder Lubrication
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 128
(1
), pp. 168
–175
.37.
Jeng
, Y. R.
, and Tsai
, H. J.
, 2005, “Grain Flow for Rough Surfaces Considering Grain/Grain Collision Elasticity
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 127
(4
), pp. 837
–844
.38.
Khonsari
, M. M.
, 1997, “On the Modeling of Multi-Body Interaction Problems in Tribology
,” Wear
0043-1648, 207
(1-2
), pp. 55
–62
.39.
Hsu
, S. M.
, 2004, “Nano-Lubrication: Concept and Design
,” Tribol. Int.
0301-679X, 37
(7
), pp. 537
–545
.40.
Morrow
, C. A.
, and Lovell
, M. R.
, 2005, “A Solution for Lightly Loaded Adhesive Rough Surfaces With Application to MEMS
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 127
(1
), pp. 206
–212
.41.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Brewe
, D. E.
, 1993, “On the Cognitive Approach Toward Classification of Dry Triboparticulates
,” 20th Leeds Lyon Symposium on Tribology
, Elsevier
, New York, Tribology Series, pp. 303
–325
.42.
Heshmat
, H.
, and Brewe
, D. E.
, 1991, “On Some Experimental Rheological Aspects of Triboparticulates
,” Proc. of 18th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Wear Particles: From the Cradle to the Grave
, Lyon, France, Elsevier
, Amsterdam, Netherlands
, pp. 357
–367
.43.
Higgs
III, C. F.
, 2001, “Particulate Flow Lubrication: Continuum Modeling of Shear Behavior
,” Ph.D. thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.44.
Bridgwater
, J.
, 1984, “Fluid Effects in Powder Mechanics
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 37
, pp. 245
–254
.45.
Rietema
, K.
, 1984, “Powders, What are They?
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 37
, pp. 5
–23
.46.
Godet
, M.
, Berthier
, Y.
, Lancaster
, J.
, and Vincent
, L.
, 1991, “Wear Modeling: How Far Can We Get With First Principles
,” Proc. of Symposium on Tribological Modeling for Mechanical Designers, May 23, 1990
, San Francisco, ASTM
, Philadelphia, pp. 173
–179
.47.
Niccolini
, E.
, and Berthier
, Y.
, 2005, “Wheel-Rail Adhesion: Laboratory Study of ‘Natural’ Third Body Role on Locomotives Wheels and Rails
,” Wear
0043-1648, 258
(7-8
), pp. 1172
–1178
.48.
Erdemir
, A.
, 1994, “Crystal Chemistry and Solid Lubricating Properties of the Monochalcogenides Gallium Selenide and Tin Selenide
,” STLE Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 37
(3
), pp. 471
–478
.49.
Kustas
, F. M.
, and Buchholtz
, B. W.
, 1996, “Lubricious-Surface-Silicon-Nitride Rings for High-Temperature Tribological Applications
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 39
(1
), p. 43
.50.
Rosado
, L.
, Forster
, N. H.
, and Wittberg
, T. N.
, 2000, “Solid Lubrication of Silicon Nitride With Cesium-Based Compounds: Part II - Surface Analysis
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 43
(3
), p. 521
.51.
Sawyer
, W. G.
, Ziegert
, J. C.
, Schmitz
, T. L.
, and Barton
, A.
, 2006, “In Situ Lubrication With Boric Acid: Powder Delivery of an Environmentally Benign Solid Lubricant
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 49
(2
), pp. 284
–290
.52.
Lovell
, M.
, Higgs
III, C. F.
, and Mobley
, A. J.
, 2005, “A Novel Particulate-Fluid Lubricant for Environmentally Benign Forming Processes
,” Proceedings of the World Tribology Congress III
, Washington, D.C.53.
Deshmukh
, P.
, Lovell
, M.
, Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Mobley
, A.
, 2006, “On the Friction and Wear Performance of Boric Acid Lubricant Combinations in Extended Duration Operations
,” Wear
0043-1648, 260
(11-12
), p. 1295
.54.
Lu
, K.
, Brodsky
, E. E.
, and Kavehpour
, H. P.
, 2005, “Tribological Aspects and Fluidity of Dense Granular Flow
,” ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition
, November 2005, Orlando, FL.55.
Mei
, R.
, Klausner
, J. F.
, Shang
, H.
, and Kallman
, E.
, 1997, “On the Improved Flowability of Cohesive Powders by Coating With Fine Particles
,” Proc. of 1997 TMS Annual Meeting, Feb 9–13
, Orlando, Minerals, Metals, and Materials Soc (TMS), Warrendale, PA, pp. 225
–236
.56.
Mei
, R.
, Shang
, H.
, Walton
, O. R.
, and Klausner
, J. F.
, 2000, “Concentration Non-Uniformity in Simple Shear Flow of Cohesive Powders
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 112
(1
), pp. 102
–110
.57.
Massoudi
, M.
, and Mehrabadi
, M. M.
, 2001, “A Continuum Model for Granular Materials: Considering Dilatancy and the Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
,” Acta Mech.
0001-5970, 152
(1-4
), pp. 121
–138
.58.
Tanner
, R. I.
, 1985, Engineering Rheology
, 1st ed., Clarendon Press
, Oxford, p. 451
.59.
Akers
, R.
, 1984, “The Role of Particle Interactions in Powder Mechanics, Papers Presented at a Symposium Held in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, August 29–31, 1983—Introduction
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 37
, pp. 1
–4
.60.
Iordanoff
, I.
, Berthier
, Y.
, Descartes
, S.
, and Heshmat
, H.
, 2002, “A Review of Recent Approaches for Modeling Solid Third Bodies
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 124
(4
), pp. 725
–735
.61.
Berthier
, Y.
, Godet
, M.
, and Brendle
, M.
, 1989, “Velocity Accommodation in Friction
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 32
(4
), pp. 490
–496
.62.
Berthier
, Y.
, Vincent
, L.
, and Godet
, M.
, 1992, “Velocity Accommodation Sites and Modes in Tribology
,” Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids
0997-7538, 11
(1
), pp. 35
–47
.63.
Tardos
, G. I.
, McNamara
, S.
, and Talu
, I.
, 2003, “Slow and Intermediate Flow of a Frictional Bulk Powder in the Couette Geometry
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 131
(1
), pp. 23
–39
.64.
Kohen
, I.
, Play
, D.
, and Godet
, M.
, 1980, “Effect of Machine Rigidity or Degrees of Freedom on the Load-Carrying Capacity of Wear Debris
,” Wear
0043-1648, 61
(2
), pp. 381
–384
.65.
Godet
, M.
, 1984, “The 3rd-Body Approach—A Mechanical View of Wear
,” Wear
0043-1648, 100
(1-3
), pp. 437
–452
.66.
Berthier
, Y.
, 1990, “Experimental-Evidence for Friction and Wear Modeling
,” Wear
0043-1648, 139
(1
), pp. 77
–92
.67.
Fillot
, N.
, Iordanoff
, I.
, and Berthier
, Y.
, 2005, “Widening Classical Wear Laws to the Concept of Third Body
,” Proc. of World Tribology Congress III
, Washington, D.C., ASME
, New York
, pp. 51
–52
.68.
Descartes
, S.
, Desrayaud
, C.
, Niccolini
, E.
, and Berthier
, Y.
, 2005, “Presence and Role of the Third Body in a Wheel-Rail Contact: Contact Mechanics and Wear of Rail/Wheel Systems
,” Wear
0043-1648, 258
(7-8
), pp. 1081
–1090
.69.
Iordanoff
, I.
, Seve
, B.
, and Berthier
, Y.
, 2002, “Solid Third Body Analysis Using a Discrete Approach: Influence of Adhesion and Particle Size on Macroscopic Properties
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 124
(3
), pp. 530
–538
.70.
Fillot
, N.
, Iordanoff
, I.
, and Berthier
, Y.
, 2005, “Simulation of Wear Through Mass Balance in a Dry Contact
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 127
(1
), pp. 230
–237
.71.
Wornyoh
, E.
, and Higgs
, C. F.
, 2005, “Self-Replenishing, Self-Repairing Solid Lubrication: Modeling and Experimentation
,” Proc. of World Tribology Conference III
, Washington, D.C., ASME
, New York
, pp. 409
–410
.72.
Dickrell
, P. L.
, Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Erdemir
, A.
, 2004, “Fractional Coverage Model for the Adsorption and Removal of Gas Species and Application to Superlow Friction Diamond-Like Carbon
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 126
(3
), pp. 615
–619
.73.
Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Blanchet
, T. A.
, 2001, “Vapor-Phase Lubrication in Combined Rolling and Sliding Contacts: Modeling and Experimentation
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 123
(3
), pp. 572
–581
.74.
Higgs
III, C. F.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 2004, “Granular Flow Lubrication: Continuum Modeling of Shear Behavior
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 126
, pp. 499
–510
.75.
Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Tichy
, J.
, 2001, “Lubrication With Grain Flow: Continuum Theory, Particle Simulations, Comparison With Experiment
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 123
(4
), pp. 777
–784
.76.
Zhou
, L.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2000, “Flow Characteristics of a Powder Lubricant Sheared Between Parallel Plates
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 122
, pp. 147
–154
.77.
Tsai
, H. J.
, and Jeng
, Y. R.
, 2002, “An Average Lubrication Equation for Thin Film Grain Flow With Surface Roughness Effects
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 124
(4
), pp. 736
–742
.78.
Haff
, P. K.
, 1983, “Grain Flow as a Fluid-Mechanical Phenomenon
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 134
, pp. 401
–430
.79.
Lun
, C. K. K.
, Savage
, S. B.
, Jeffrey
, D. J.
, and Chepurniy
, N.
, 1984, “Kinetic Theories for Granular Flow—Inelastic Particles in Couette-Flow and Slightly Inelastic Particles in a General Flowfield
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 140
, pp. 223
–256
.80.
Bocquet
, L.
, Losert
, W.
, Schalk
, D.
, Lubensky
, T. C.
, and Gollub
, J. P.
, 2002, “Granular Shear Flow Dynamics and Forces: Experiment and Continuum Theory
,” Phys. Rev. E
1063-651X, 65
(1
), p. 011307
.81.
Chen
, D. M.
, Klausner
, J. F.
, and Mei
, R. W.
, 2002, “A Fluid Mechanics Approach to Describing the Behavior of Pneumatically Conveyed Powder Plugs
,” Powder Technol.
0032-5910, 124
(1-2
), pp. 127
–137
.82.
Tardos
, G. I.
, Khan
, M. I.
, and Schaeffer
, D. G.
, 1998, “Forces on a Slowly Rotating, Rough Cylinder in a Couette Device Containing a Dry, Frictional Powder
,” Phys. Fluids
1070-6631, 10
(2
), pp. 335
–341
.83.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1993, “Wear Reduction Systems for Coal-Fueled Diesel Engines, II. Experimental Results and Hydrodynamic Model of Powder Lubrication
,” Proc. of the 9th International Conference on Wear of Materials, April 13–16, Wear
0043-1648, 162–164
(Pt A
), pp. 518
–528
.84.
Dai
, F. L.
, Khonsari
, M. M.
, and Lu
, Z. Y.
, 1994, “On the Lubrication Mechanism of Grain Flows
,” Tribol. Trans.
1040-2004, 37
(3
), pp. 516
–524
.85.
Heshmat
, H.
, 1992, “The Quasi-Hydrodynamic Mechanism of Powder Lubrication. 2: Lubricant Film Pressure Profile
,” Lubr. Eng.
0024-7154, 48
(5
), pp. 373
–383
.86.
Sawyer
, W. G.
, and Tichy
, J. A.
, 2001, “Lubrication With Granular Flow: Continuum Theory, Particle Simulations, Comparison With Experiment
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 123
(4
), pp. 777
–784
.87.
Zhou
, L.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2000, “Flow Characteristics of a Powder Lubricant Sheared Between Parallel Plates
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 122
(1
), pp. 147
–155
.88.
Pappur
, M.
, and Khonsari
, M. M.
, 2003, “Flow Characterization and Performance of a Powder Lubricated Slider Bearing
,” ASME J. Tribol.
0742-4787, 125
(1
), pp. 135
–144
.89.
Savage
, S. B.
, and Jeffrey
, D. J.
, 1981, “The Stress Tensor in a Granular Flow at High Shear Rates
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 110
(SEP
), pp. 255
–272
.90.
Carnahan
, N. F.
, and Starling
, K.
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