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Abstract

This research delves into the multifaceted realm of carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization and transportation, focusing on combatting the pressing global challenge of climate change. Through an extensive review of literature, this study offers a comprehensive overview of existing knowledge on CO2 utilization technologies and transportation methods, identifying critical gaps and establishing research objectives to address these voids. Various CO2 utilization technologies such as enhanced oil recovery (EOR), carbonation of minerals, and synthetic fuel production are examined, with case studies highlighting their applications, efficiency, and environmental impact. The economic viability and technical feasibility of these technologies are explored, considering their potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Simultaneously, the study evaluates CO2 transportation methods including pipelines, shipping, and trucking, analyzing safety considerations, infrastructure challenges, and environmental implications to optimize transportation logistics while minimizing environmental impact. Results drawn from quantitative data, case studies, and comparative analysis are presented, followed by a discussion interpreting these findings in the context of climate change mitigation and sustainable development. The research concludes with key findings, acknowledgment of limitations, and suggestions for future exploration, contributing to the essential knowledge base for effective strategies in combating climate change through innovative CO2 utilization and transportation practices.

1 Introduction

Climate change poses a significant global challenge, necessitating a collective reevaluation of industrial practices and energy consumption. Central to this reassessment is the imperative to address carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the primary contributor to the greenhouse effect [1]. The continual release of CO2 into the atmosphere, largely stemming from industrial activities and energy production [2], underscores the critical need for emission reduction measures.

Models outlining pathways to achieve net-zero emissions indicate that Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) will be crucial in efforts to attain net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 [3]. CCUS involves capturing carbon from specific sources and either storing it geologically or utilizing it productively, playing a pivotal role in decarbonizing both industrial and power sectors [4]. However, challenges persist in certain industrial processes, such as high-temperature heating processes [5], and in the power sector, where the immediate elimination of fossil-fueled generation is not feasible [6].

In this context, exploring CO2 utilization and transportation presents a promising frontier in the battle against climate change [7]. Rather than viewing CO2 as merely a byproduct, innovative approaches seek to harness its potential for constructive applications [8], ranging from enhanced oil recovery (EOR) [9] to the synthesis of renewable fuels [10], offering dual benefits of emissions reduction and sustainable practices.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) holds promise in capturing a significant portion of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel usage, with potential applications across various sectors such as power generation, cement, chemical, and steel production [11]. However, there has been a lack of comprehensive insights into CO2 utilization, particularly in the context of Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) [12]. CCU faces challenges including low Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), high CO2 costs, small market sizes, and limited environmental benefits, leading to its underrepresentation in energy models [13].

An imbalance in the representation of CCU in energy models raises questions about the factors influencing its incorporation into model outcomes. The authors propose that the cost associated with CO2 transport and storage may be a significant driver, with CCU potentially being more competitive in scenarios with high costs related to CO2 transport and storage [14]. Energy models commonly assume a standard cost for CO2 transport and storage [15], but studies indicate that actual costs can vary significantly [16].

1.1 Research Question.

In the context of a rapidly evolving landscape, our research aims to investigate the most effective approaches to utilizing and transporting CO2, with the goal of providing valuable insights to advance these initiatives [17]. The central question guiding our exploration can be delineated into two parts:

  1. How can CO2 be utilized across various applications to effectively mitigate climate change?

  2. What are the optimal methods for transporting CO2 seamlessly from emission sources to utilization or storage sites?

1.2 Objectives of the Study

  1. Analyze and evaluate various CO2 utilization techniques, including Direct Air Capture (DAC), CCU, and biological CO2 fixation, to identify their potential and limitations in mitigating climate change across diverse applications.

  2. Assess and compare different CO2 transportation methods, such as pipelines, shipping, and trucking, to determine the most efficient and sustainable approaches for transporting CO2 from emission sources to utilization or storage sites.

2 Literature Review

The discourse surrounding CO2 utilization and transportation reflects a collective endeavor to address the pressing issue of climate change. Numerous studies provide insights into key concepts, technological advancements, persistent challenges, and recent breakthroughs in this vital area.

Keith et al. [4] highlight the shift in perception of CO2 from a mere emission to a valuable resource, emphasizing enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and CCU as pivotal strategies. Renforth [5] explores technological advancements in CO2 utilization, including direct air capture (DAC) technologies and post-combustion capture methods. The World Energy Council [6] discusses the potential synergy between CO2 utilization technologies and renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power.

Despite the promise of CO2 utilization, economic viability remains a significant challenge, as noted by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine [7]. Smith and Trabold [8] address logistical challenges in CO2 storage and transportation, emphasizing the need for robust infrastructure and standardized policies.

Recent collaborative initiatives aim to accelerate the development and deployment of CO2 utilization technologies, as highlighted in various studies [9]. Olah et al. [10] explore electrochemical processes for converting CO2 into valuable chemicals, while biological approaches, such as engineered bacteria, are discussed [11]. Innovative transportation methods, including liquid CO2 shipping and mineralization, are explored [14,15], respectively.

For a comprehensive approach to carbon management, the integration of utilization and transportation strategies is crucial, as emphasized by cross-disciplinary studies [16]. Collaborative efforts between technologists, policymakers, and the public are essential to develop comprehensive solutions that contribute to a circular carbon economy.

By synthesizing insights from existing literature, our research aims to contribute to the advancement of CO2 utilization and transportation strategies, ultimately facilitating the transition towards a more sustainable future.

2.1 Transportation of CO2.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and transportation are critical components of CCS systems aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas emissions [18]. After capturing CO2 from industrial processes or power plants, it must be safely transported to storage sites for long-term sequestration. The transportation process offers several alternatives, including pipelines, marine tankers, and trains/trucks. Each method presents distinct advantages and challenges, influencing its suitability for CCS projects.

Pipeline transportation stands as the primary and most widely used method for conveying CO2 [19]. Similar to the transportation of oil and natural gas, extensive networks of pipelines have been established specifically for CO2 transport, spanning thousands of kilometers [20]. These pipelines facilitate the efficient movement of large quantities of CO2 across considerable distances. However, ensuring the safety of humans and the environment during pipeline installation and operation is paramount, necessitating adherence to specific guidelines and regulations [21].

Marine tanker transportation offers an alternative means of transporting CO2, involving the liquefaction of CO2 and subsequent transportation via tankers [22]. While this method is advantageous for transporting fluids over extremely long distances beyond the capabilities of pipelines, it comes with significant costs associated with the liquefaction process and tanker design [23]. Maintaining CO2 in a liquid state during transport requires precise refrigeration, further contributing to transportation expenses. Consequently, marine tanker transport of CO2 is less common compared to pipeline transport [24].

A third option involves transporting liquefied CO2 using trains or trucks. However, this alternative is considered less attractive due to its higher cost and logistical challenges, and it is not expected to play a significant role in CCS projects.

Safety measures are paramount in CO2 pipeline transportation to ensure secure and reliable operations. Precautions and guidelines are established to regulate pipeline design, siting locations, and operational practices. Despite the potential hazards, incidents and fatalities related to CO2 pipeline transport are notably lower compared to oil or natural gas transportation. Factors contributing to this include CO2 presenting fewer hazards and the comparatively limited installation of CO2 pipelines.

Compression is a critical aspect of CO2 pipeline transportation, where CO2 is compressed to supercritical conditions for efficient transport. Maintaining pressure and temperature within the pipeline is crucial to ensure the continuous supercritical state of the CO2 stream. Additionally, fluid treatment is necessary to prevent pipeline corrosion and potential CO2 leakage. This involves removing impurities such as water, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and mercury to achieve high purity levels and mitigate corrosion risks.

Corrosion control measures are implemented in CO2 pipeline design and installation to minimize corrosion risks and prevent leakage. These include selecting corrosion-resistant materials, coating pipelines with protective layers, and implementing cathodic protection measures. Regular monitoring through aerial surveys and pressure point analysis helps identify and address potential leakage promptly.

In addition to pipeline transportation, CO2 can be transported in its gaseous, liquid, or solid states via tanks, pipelines, and ships [19]. Technologies for commercial CO2 transportation continue to evolve, with ongoing research exploring alternatives such as natural gas hydrate systems [20]. Establishing a comprehensive network of pipelines is essential for a transportation infrastructure that significantly contributes to climate change mitigation [21].

Economically favorable CO2 capture systems prioritize capturing CO2 from pure stream sources initially, followed by centralized power and synfuel plants [22]. However, the shift toward decentralized power supply grids could escalate CO2 capture and transport costs [23], potentially leading to stranded CO2 at economically unviable capture sites. A robust regulatory framework is essential to guide investment decisions in low-greenhouse-gas-emission industries [24], with carbon dioxide transport becoming a pivotal factor in future power plant planning.

Despite the benefits of CO2 pipeline transportation, it presents various technical and economic challenges [25]. These encompass techno-economic aspects [26], pipeline design [27], flow assurance [28], integrity management, and safety measures [29]. Efficient transport of CO2 relies on maintaining it in the supercritical phase, which is sensitive to elevations and impurities, impacting pipeline operations and fluid dynamics [30].

CO2 capture and transportation are integral components of CCS systems aimed at mitigating greenhouse gas emissions [31]. While pipeline transportation remains the primary method for conveying CO2, alternative methods such as marine tanker transport and transportation via trains/trucks offer viable alternatives [32]. Safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness are key considerations in CO2 transportation, necessitating adherence to rigorous regulations and ongoing technological advancements to address challenges and optimize transport processes for future CCS projects [33].

Optimizing the size and design of pipelines for CO2 transport is crucial, considering factors like repressurization distance, pump/compressor station requirements, and energy consumption [34]. However, the construction costs associated with CO2 pipelines are currently high [35], necessitating a thorough economic evaluation encompassing both project and operating expenses [36]. This evaluation framework must account for various pipeline configurations, including multiple small-capacity pipelines, a single large-capacity pipeline, and those with increasing capacities [37]. Addressing corrosion concerns, such as low pH effects and the use of inhibitors, is essential for minimizing annual operating costs and ensuring pipeline integrity and longevity [38].

Despite several publications addressing specific challenges of CO2 pipeline transport, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews covering all pertinent issues [39]. This review aims to fill this gap by identifying uncertainties and knowledge gaps, facilitating the timely deployment of large-scale CCS chains [40]. By gathering and assessing available information, it seeks to reduce uncertainty levels associated with CO2 pipeline transport [41], enabling stakeholders to prioritize mitigation strategies effectively [42].

Variations in techno-economic models for cost estimation, including MIT, Ecofys, McCoy and Rubin, and Ogden, can lead to substantial differences in project costs [43]. Therefore, this review compares these models with the Aspen Process Economic Analyser (APEA) to identify discrepancies and enhance cost prediction accuracy [44].

Moreover, the importance of early corrosion mitigation measures during project conceptualization and implementation is evaluated [45]. Additionally, the impact of impurities in the CO2 stream on pipeline system performance is assessed to ensure efficient operation [27].

2.2 CO2 Properties in Pipeline Transport

2.2.1 Thermodynamic Properties.

The presence of impurities within the CO2 stream significantly impacts the design and operation of the pipeline system. Therefore, a comprehensive grasp of the thermodynamic properties, particularly regarding the interactions among pressure, volume, temperature, and their combined effects, is crucial. CO2 exhibits a unique behavior: at its triple point (5.2 bar, −56 °C), it can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas [5]. However, once surpassing the critical point (74 bar, 31 °C), CO2 enters a supercritical phase. It's noteworthy that the introduction of impurities alters the cricondenbar, which is the maximum pressure on the phase diagram. This modification not only affects the operational pressure range but also increases the likelihood of encountering a two-phase flow in the CO2 transport pipeline [10].

Experimental data extensively cover binary mixtures involving CO2 and various impurities [3941], with a primary focus on CO2 combined with H2O, CH4, N2, and H2S. However, there has been limited exploration into the effects of O2, SO2, and Ar, which may also be present in CO2 streams captured from fossil fuel power plants [8]. The presence of these impurities alters the critical pressure of the CO2 stream due to variations in the vapor pressure of different constituent species, subsequently impacting the repressurization distance along the CO2 transport pipeline. To mitigate the potential occurrence of two-phase flow induced by impurities, it is necessary to increase the operating pressure of the CO2 transport pipeline and identify suitable repressurization points [11].

2.2.2 Transport Properties.

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate how small changes in working conditions near the CO2 critical point can lead to significant variations in CO2 density. For instance, a decrease of approximately 10 °C from the critical temperature can double the density [11].

Fig. 1
Phase envelopes for pure CO2 and CO2 mixtures (reproduced from Wang et al. [36] © Elsevier 2011).
Fig. 1
Phase envelopes for pure CO2 and CO2 mixtures (reproduced from Wang et al. [36] © Elsevier 2011).
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Fig. 2
Variation of carbon dioxide density with temperature
Fig. 2
Variation of carbon dioxide density with temperature
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The hydraulic efficiency and economic viability of CCS pipeline systems are significantly influenced by specific factors [2732]. To ensure the CO2 remains in the supercritical phase along the transportation pipeline, utilizing a pump-based system for flow repressurization is recommended. Additionally, changes in pipeline depth, particularly in marine environments, are expected to affect the temperature and pressure of the CO2 stream due to variances in surrounding pressure.

Various factors, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, play pivotal roles in the design and implementation of CO2 transport pipelines. These factors directly impact the calculation of hydraulic properties and the pipeline's ability to transfer heat [43]. As depicted in Figs. 35, the viscosity of pure CO2 decreases with increasing temperature and further diminishes in the presence of impurities. The reduction in CO2 viscosity notably enhances transport efficiency by minimizing pressure losses throughout the pipeline's length.

Fig. 3
Operating conditions for CO2 transport pipeline
Fig. 3
Operating conditions for CO2 transport pipeline
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Fig. 4
Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization pathways
Fig. 4
Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization pathways
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Fig. 5
Carbon dioxide capture and utilization in energy model
Fig. 5
Carbon dioxide capture and utilization in energy model
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2.3 Preferred Conditions for CO2 Transport.

Optimal conditions for CO2 transport involve maximizing the amount of CO2 transported via pipeline in the supercritical phase, owing to its high density compared to other phases [27]. Furthermore, transporting CO2 in the supercritical phase is considered the most cost-effective method from capture to utilization or storage points via pipelines [41]. This phase allows for the maximum transportation of CO2 per unit volume, as the supercritical fluid combines the density of a liquid with the viscosity of a gas [38].

Carbon dioxide (CO2) transport requires specific conditions to ensure safety, efficiency, and environmental responsibility. First, the transportation vessels must be designed to handle CO2 in its various forms, whether as a gas or in its liquid state. High-pressure pipelines are commonly used for transporting CO2 over long distances, ensuring minimal leakage and efficient delivery [1]. Additionally, storage vessels should meet stringent safety standards to prevent leaks or ruptures during transportation [2]. Temperature control is vital to maintain CO2 in its intended state, especially during long-distance transport where fluctuations can occur. Thus, proper insulation and cooling systems are essential to regulate temperature and prevent phase changes [3]. Moreover, strict monitoring and maintenance protocols must be in place to detect and address any potential leaks promptly [4]. It is crucial to consider the environmental impact of CO2 transport, including minimizing emissions and adhering to regulatory requirements to mitigate any adverse effects on the ecosystem [5].

Transporting captured CO2 in the supercritical phase necessitates compression to a pressure surpassing the critical pressure, a critical step to avert two-phase flow within the CO2 transport pipeline [14]. The choice of transport mode, whether ships, trucks, or pipelines, hinges primarily on available resources, with considerations including CO2 volume and distance between capture facility and storage site for determining the most economically viable method.

2.4 Ships for CO2 Transportation.

Ships serve as a mode for CO2 transportation across seas, with operations entailing a cycle of continuous CO2 capture on land, temporary storage, and loading facilities. Planning ship capacities, service speeds, and schedules involves factors such as CO2 capture rates, transport distances, and logistical constraints. Comparable to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) transportation, CO2 ships may offload onto onshore storage tanks or offshore platforms, floating storage facilities, single-buoy moorings, or directly into storage systems, depending on the storage arrangement [18].

Despite the potential of ships for CO2 transport, the current usage remains in its infancy, with only a handful of small ships globally dedicated to this purpose. These ships primarily transport liquefied food-grade CO2 from concentrated sources like ammonia plants to coastal distribution terminals, from where onward transportation to customers occurs via tanker trucks or pressurized cylinders. Ongoing design efforts in Norway and Japan aim to develop larger CO2 ships and associated liquefaction and storage facilities [12].

Transporting carbon dioxide (CO2) via ships is a critical component of carbon capture and storage (CCS) initiatives aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Several types of vessels are employed for this purpose, each with distinct advantages and limitations. One commonly used vessel is the dedicated CO2 tanker, specifically designed to safely transport liquefied CO2 in large quantities. These tankers are equipped with specialized storage tanks and handling systems to ensure the secure containment and transportation of CO2 [1]. Additionally, modified liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers can be repurposed for CO2 transport, leveraging their existing infrastructure and expertise in handling cryogenic fluids [2]. Another approach involves utilizing conventional chemical tankers capable of carrying various liquid cargoes, including CO2, albeit with certain modifications to meet safety and regulatory requirements [3]. Furthermore, advancements in ship design and technology continue to improve the efficiency and safety of CO2 transportation, such as incorporating carbon capture and storage systems directly onboard vessels [4]. However, challenges remain, including the need for robust regulatory frameworks, risk management strategies, and infrastructure development to support the scaling up of CO2 shipping operations [5]. Overall, leveraging diverse types of ships for CO2 transportation plays a crucial role in facilitating the deployment of CCS technologies and mitigating climate change impacts.

However, ship systems are susceptible to various failures, including collisions, foundering, stranding, and fire. Past incidents highlight the importance of maintenance, crew training, and stringent operational standards in mitigating risks. While marine accidents are not exclusive to poorly regulated vessels, systemic failures and human factors often contribute to such incidents, with technical failures being relatively uncommon [12].

Statistics reveal a considerable number of marine incidents over the years, emphasizing the need for rigorous safety measures. Tankers, although subject to higher standards compared to general ships, are not immune to accidents, with stranding being a significant concern. Nonetheless, adherence to prescribed navigation routes and operational standards helps mitigate such risks. LNG tankers, while potentially hazardous, are meticulously designed and operated, with no recorded cargo losses from accidental incidents [13].

Safety protocols for marine transport of liquefied gas, exemplified by extensive literature, underscore the importance of maintaining high construction and operational standards. While CO2 tankers and terminals pose less fire risk compared to LNG, potential asphyxiation hazards in case of collision-induced tank rupture necessitate stringent safety measures. Furthermore, the complex interactions of liquid CO2 with seawater, including the formation of hydrates and ice, necessitate further study to understand potential environmental impacts [23].

In the event of a CO2 tanker accident, the behavior of released CO2 differs from LNG spills due to differences in temperature and density. While some CO2 may dissolve in seawater, potential atmospheric releases pose risks, including asphyxiation in low-wind conditions and engine malfunction due to gas clouds. Minimizing such risks requires careful consideration and ongoing research [21].

While ships offer a viable option for CO2 transportation, ensuring safety and environmental protection necessitates adherence to stringent standards and ongoing research to address knowledge gaps. Effective risk management strategies, coupled with advancements in technology and operational practices, are imperative for the safe and sustainable transport of CO2 via ships [15].

2.5 CO2 Utilization.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization, traditionally defined as an industrial process aimed at creating economically valuable products using CO2 concentrations above atmospheric levels, has long been associated with chemical transformations leading to the production of materials, chemicals, fuels, and its direct application in processes like enhanced oil recovery [10]. However, this conventional definition, while historically rooted, does not encompass the full spectrum of CO2 utilization possibilities.

Beyond the confines of industrial processes, there exists a broader concept of CO2 utilization that encompasses the utilization of natural carbon, derived from atmospheric CO2 by plants, as a raw material for the production of valuable goods [11]. Moreover, techniques involving CO2 utilization extend beyond mere industrial applications, with practices such as soil carbon sequestration, known for their ability to enhance crop yields, also contributing to the generation of economic value [12].

The pathways of CO2 utilization can be delineated based on how carbon moves within Earth's spheres and where it ultimately resides [13]. These pathways can be broadly categorized into “open,” “closed,” and “cycling” utilization pathways, each offering distinct characteristics and implications for carbon management.

Open utilization pathways, depicted by purple arrows, involve the storage of CO2 in natural systems prone to leakage, such as forests. Despite their capacity to sequester carbon, these systems can transition from carbon sinks to sources rapidly, underscoring the challenges associated with their long-term carbon storage potential [14].

In contrast, closed utilization pathways, represented by red arrows, offer the promise of near-permanent storage of CO2. Examples include the incorporation of carbon into building materials, where it remains sequestered for extended periods, contributing to carbon mitigation efforts.

Cycling utilization pathways, depicted by yellow arrows, involve the continuous movement of carbon over relatively short timescales. One such example is the production of CO2-based fuels, where carbon undergoes cycles of extraction, utilization, and release, perpetuating the carbon flow within Earth's systems [15].

Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization, often referred to as CO2 utilization or CO2 utilization technologies, is gaining attention as a potential strategy to mitigate climate change by converting CO2 into valuable products, thus reducing emissions and creating economic opportunities [19]. One promising approach involves the conversion of CO2 into chemicals, fuels, or materials through various chemical and biological processes [20]. For instance, CO2 can be used as a feedstock in the production of chemicals such as methanol, formic acid, or methane, which can be further utilized in various industrial applications [21]. Additionally, CO2 can be converted into carbon-neutral fuels like synthetic gasoline or diesel, offering a pathway to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and decrease greenhouse gas emissions [22]. Another avenue of CO2 utilization is the development of building materials such as carbon-based composites or polymers, which not only sequester CO2 but also provide alternatives to traditional materials with lower environmental footprints [23]. Furthermore, biological methods, including microbial carbon capture and utilization, show promise in harnessing CO2 for the production of biofuels or biochemicals, presenting sustainable solutions for both carbon capture and resource generation [24]. While CO2 utilization holds significant potential, challenges such as technological feasibility, scalability, and economic viability need to be addressed for widespread adoption [25]. Collaborative efforts among researchers, policymakers, and industries are crucial to advancing CO2 utilization technologies and realizing their environmental and economic benefits on a global scale [26].

The exploration of CO2 utilization pathways not only offers opportunities for economic value generation but also holds immense potential for mitigating carbon emissions and addressing climate change [27]. By leveraging natural and industrial processes, stakeholders can contribute to the sustainable management of carbon resources while advancing toward a low-carbon future [28].

Moreover, the integration of open, closed, and cycling utilization pathways presents a holistic approach to carbon management, where diverse strategies synergize to optimize carbon utilization, storage, and mitigation efforts [29]. This integrated approach acknowledges the interconnectedness of Earth's systems and seeks to harness the full spectrum of CO2 utilization possibilities for maximum societal and environmental benefit.

CO2 utilization extends beyond traditional industrial processes, encompassing a diverse array of pathways that leverage both natural and anthropogenic carbon sources. By embracing open, closed, and cycling utilization strategies, stakeholders can unlock new opportunities for economic development, carbon mitigation, and environmental stewardship, paving the way toward a sustainable and resilient future [30].

2.6 CO2 Utilization With Climate Mitigation.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization pathways depicted in the diagram above present an intriguing intersection of economic incentives and potential climate mitigation strategies [29]. The utilization of CO2 can serve two primary purposes: the extraction and long-term storage of atmospheric CO2, and the reduction of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Moreover, leveraging CO2 to create valuable products could potentially offset some of the expenses associated with mitigating climate change [30].

Projections suggest that more than 10 billion tonnes of CO2 annually could be effectively utilized, compared to the global emission rate of 40 billion tonnes, all at a cost of less than $100 per tonne [31]. The bulk of this utilization is anticipated to involve medium- or long-term storage through open and closed pathways [32]. However, several challenges must be addressed before achieving such substantial utilization rates [33].

Despite the potential benefits, it is imperative to recognize that CO2 utilization, if not carefully executed, may not necessarily contribute to climate mitigation [34]. Several factors could impede its efficacy, including direct CO2 emissions, emissions of other greenhouse gases, land-use changes, emissions from the production process, leakage, and impermanent displacement of emissions [35].

Hepburn et al. emphasize various crucial factors influencing the climate-beneficial nature of CO2 utilization technologies [36]. These include the energy source, broader decarbonization context, scale, and permanence of the utilized pathways.

Firstly, the energy source powering CO2 utilization technologies must be renewable, sourced either directly from the sun or through renewable energy technologies [37]. Energy-intensive processes demand clean, sustainable sources to ensure a net reduction in emissions.

Secondly, the broader decarbonization context is vital [38]. Some CO2 utilization methods may only serve as viable mitigation strategies at specific stages of global decarbonization. For instance, employing enhanced oil recovery for CO2 sequestration might be feasible in the short term, preceding the complete decarbonization of energy and transportation systems.

Moreover, scalability is paramount [39]. For CO2 utilization to significantly impact global CO2 flows, pathways must possess the potential for rapid scalability. Given the narrow window for effective climate action, establishing an entirely new CO2 utilization industry within the required timeframe presents a formidable challenge.

Finally, permanence is crucial [40]. The most effective technologies will be those that either permanently remove atmospheric CO2 or permanently displace CO2 emissions, ensuring sustained climate benefits.

Two primary pathways for CO2 utilization are through CO2 chemicals and CO2 fuels [43].

CO2 chemicals involve reducing CO2 to its constituent components via catalysts and utilizing chemical reactions to produce valuable products such as methanol, urea, or polymers [44]. By 2050, CO2 chemicals could potentially utilize 0.3–0.6 billion tonnes of CO2 annually, with costs ranging between −$80 to $300 per tonne of CO2 [43].

On the other hand, CO2 fuels involve combining hydrogen with CO2 to produce hydrocarbon fuels like methanol, synfuels, and syngas [44]. This approach could cater to significant market demands, especially in existing transport infrastructure. However, current costs are prohibitively high. CO2 fuels have the potential to utilize 1–4.2 billion tonnes of CO2 per year by 2050, albeit at costs of up to $670 per tonne of CO2 [45].

Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization presents a promising avenue for addressing both economic and climate challenges [1]. However, realizing its full potential requires overcoming numerous hurdles and ensuring alignment with key factors such as energy sourcing, decarbonization context, scalability, and permanence [2]. By carefully navigating these complexities, CO2 utilization could emerge as a valuable tool in the global fight against climate change.

2.7 Utilizing Various Pathways for Carbon Dioxide Management and Storage.

Efforts to mitigate the impact of CO2 emissions on climate change have spurred extensive research into innovative approaches for capturing and storing CO2 [3]. Several promising pathways, each with its own set of advantages, challenges, and estimated costs, have emerged as potential solutions. Here, we explore these pathways and their potential roles in addressing the global challenge of CO2 management.

Microalgae Utilization: Harnessing microalgae to sequester CO2 efficiently and then converting the biomass into valuable products such as fuels and high-value chemicals has garnered significant attention in recent years [4]. Despite promising advancements, the complex economics of production have posed challenges, with costs ranging between $230 and $920 per tonne of CO2 [5]. However, projections suggest that by 2050, utilization rates could reach 0.2–0.9 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2 per year [6].

Concrete Building Materials: CO2 can be utilized in the production of concrete building materials, offering a dual benefit of storing CO2 while potentially displacing emissions-intensive conventional cement [7]. Despite the potential of this approach, a challenging regulatory environment and present-day costs ranging from −$30 to $70 per tonne of CO2 have hindered widespread adoption [8]. Projections for 2050 indicate a utilization and storage potential of 0.1–1.4 GtCO2 annually [9].

Carbon dioxide (CO2) utilization presents a promising avenue for climate mitigation efforts by repurposing CO2 emissions into valuable products, thereby reducing their atmospheric concentration [10]. One significant application lies in CCU technologies, where captured CO2 is converted into useful products such as fuels, chemicals, and building materials. For instance, CO2 can be converted into methane through processes like methanation, providing a renewable energy source while simultaneously sequestering carbon [11]. Additionally, CO2 can be utilized in the production of chemicals such as methanol and formic acid, which serve as feedstocks for various industrial processes [12]. Moreover, advancements in electrochemical CO2 reduction have enabled the synthesis of higher-value products like ethylene and ethanol, offering economically viable alternatives to traditional petrochemical-derived products [13]. Furthermore, the integration of CO2 utilization technologies with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power can facilitate the creation of closed-loop carbon cycles, where CO2 emissions from industrial processes are recycled and converted back into useful products, thereby mitigating climate impact [14]. However, challenges such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, and lifecycle analysis must be addressed to realize the full potential of CO2 utilization in climate mitigation strategies [15]. Despite these challenges, continued research and investment in CO2 utilization technologies hold promise for achieving significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions while fostering sustainable economic development.

CO2- EOR: In CO2-enhanced oil recovery, injecting CO2 into oil wells can boost oil production while also facilitating CO2 storage [40]. Strategic operation of EOR processes can lead to the injection and storage of more CO2 than is produced from the consumed oil [41]. By 2050, it is estimated that 0.1–1.8 GtCO2 per year could be utilized and stored through EOR, with costs ranging from −$60 to −$40 per tonne of CO2 [42].

Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): Bioenergy with carbon capture involves capturing CO2 emissions from biomass combustion, producing electricity, and storing the resulting emissions [42]. Despite uncertainties in revenue generation, projections suggest that between 0.5 and 5 GtCO2 per year could be utilized and stored through BECCS by 2050, with costs ranging from $60 to $160 per tonne of CO2 [44].

Enhanced Weathering: Accelerated weathering of rocks, such as basalt, offers a pathway for capturing atmospheric CO2 and enhancing agricultural yields [45]. While the potential benefits are promising, the early-stage nature of this approach hinders accurate projections for 2050.

Forestry: The sustainable management of forests presents an opportunity to sequester CO2 through timber utilization, potentially displacing emissions-intensive materials like cement [27]. Projections suggest that up to 1.5 GtCO2 could be utilized in this manner by 2050, with costs ranging from −$40 to $10 per tonne of CO2.

Soil Carbon Sequestration: Implementing land management techniques for soil carbon sequestration not only stores CO2 in the soil but also enhances agricultural productivity [46]. By 2050, the increased agricultural output resulting from soil carbon sequestration could utilize 0.9–1.9 GtCO2 per year, with costs ranging from −$90 to −$20 per tonne of CO2.

Biochar Utilization: Biochar, derived from pyrolyzed biomass, shows promise in enhancing crop yields and sequestering CO2 in agricultural soils [47]. Despite challenges in product consistency and soil reactions, projections suggest that between 0.2 and 1 GtCO2 could be utilized through biochar by 2050, at costs around −$65 per tonne of CO2.

In conclusion, the diverse pathways for CO2 management and storage offer promising avenues for mitigating climate change. While each approach presents its own set of challenges and uncertainties, continued research and innovation are essential for maximizing their potential impact in addressing the global challenge of CO2 emissions. By leveraging these pathways in tandem with broader sustainability efforts, society can move closer to a more sustainable and resilient future.

2.8 Gaps in the Knowledge.

There are several notable gaps in the research landscape concerning CO2 utilization, particularly in the economic domain [48]. While existing studies acknowledge the economic challenges associated with CO2 utilization technologies, there is a pressing need for more comprehensive investigations to develop cost-effective solutions [4]. These studies should delve into the barriers to scalability and propose strategies to enhance the economic viability of CO2 utilization projects [49].

One key area requiring further exploration is the comprehensive assessment of lifecycle emissions associated with CO2 utilization technologies [50]. Understanding the net carbon footprint of various CO2 utilization pathways will be critical for prioritizing research efforts and investment decisions [51].

Another area where research efforts could be strengthened is the development of advanced materials and catalysts for CO2 conversion [52]. Improved materials could significantly enhance the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of CO2 utilization technologies [53].

There is a need for more integrated assessments of CO2 utilization pathways that consider broader implications on energy systems, land use, and resource availability [54]. Such interdisciplinary research can contribute to a more holistic understanding of CO2 utilization's potential role in achieving sustainability goals [55].

Another critical area that warrants attention is life cycle assessments [40]. Although the literature discusses the environmental aspects of CO2 utilization methods, there is a conspicuous gap in conducting thorough life cycle assessments that consider environmental impacts, energy requirements, and potential unintended consequences throughout the entire life cycle of CO2 utilization technologies [41].

There is insufficient exploration of the integration of various CO2 utilization technologies [42]. While advancements in individual methods are evident, there is a lack of research on how these technologies can be synergistically integrated [43]. Future studies should examine the potential benefits and challenges of combining various CO2 utilization methods to create holistic and efficient systems [44].

Additionally, there is a paucity of literature addressing the pivotal role of policy and regulatory frameworks in either promoting or hindering CO2 utilization and transportation projects [45]. Future research should concentrate on evaluating existing policies, identifying gaps, and proposing regulatory frameworks that incentivize sustainable CO2 management practices [27].

The human dimension of CO2 utilization, encompassing public perception and social acceptance, represents another significant gap. Understanding how communities perceive and accept CO2 utilization projects is crucial for their successful implementation [46]. Therefore, future research should investigate public attitudes, concerns, and engagement strategies to ensure social acceptance [47].

Another notable gap pertains to the long-term storage and monitoring of captured CO2 [48]. While there is literature on CO2 storage in geological formations, further research is needed to develop robust monitoring technologies and protocols to ensure the secure and permanent storage of captured CO2 [4].

Furthermore, the collaborative aspect of CO2 utilization is underrepresented in current literature, constituting another gap [49]. Future research should explore effective models of global collaboration, knowledge transfer, and capacity-building initiatives between developed and developing regions to ensure a more equitable distribution of CO2 utilization benefits [50].

3 Methodology

This study employs a qualitative research approach, leveraging secondary data sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of CO2 transportation and utilization technologies [10]. The methodology is designed to analyze existing literature, case studies, and industry reports, enabling an in-depth exploration of the advancements and challenges in the field [11].

3.1 Secondary Data Collection.

Secondary data was collected from a wide range of sources, including academic articles, industry reports, government publications, and reputable online resources [12]. These sources were selected based on their relevance, credibility, and timeliness, ensuring a robust and reliable dataset for the analysis. Keywords such as “CO2 transportation,” “CO2 utilization,” “DAC,” “CCU,” and “biological CO2 fixation” were used to identify and gather relevant information [13].

3.2 Data Analysis.

The collected secondary data was carefully analyzed using thematic analysis, a qualitative method that involves identifying, organizing, and interpreting patterns within the data [14]. Key themes were identified, such as efficiency improvements in DAC technologies, varying efficiency rates in CCU techniques, and advancements in CO2 transportation methods [15]. These themes were further examined to understand their implications for CO2 emissions mitigation and the overall advancement of the field.

3.3 Case Studies.

Case studies were selected to illustrate the practical applications of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies in real-world scenarios [16]. These case studies provided valuable insights into the challenges and successes associated with the implementation of DAC, CCU, and biological CO2 fixation processes, as well as the safety and efficiency of CO2 transportation methods [2,3].

3.4 Triangulation.

To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, data triangulation was employed, comparing and contrasting information from multiple sources [4,5]. This approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and minimized the potential biases associated with individual sources.

3.5 Ethical Considerations.

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations were taken into account to ensure the responsible use of secondary data [6]. All sources were properly cited, and the intellectual property rights of authors and publishers were respected.

3.6 Limitations and Future Research.

While this qualitative study offers valuable insights into CO2 transportation and utilization technologies, it is subject to the limitations inherent to secondary data analysis, such as reliance on the accuracy and completeness of existing sources. Future research may benefit from incorporating primary data collection, such as interviews and surveys, to gain firsthand perspectives from industry experts and practitioners [10].

3.7 Presentation of Results

3.7.1 CO2 Utilization Analysis

  1. Direct Air Capture (DAC): DAC technologies involve extracting CO2 directly from ambient air, typically utilizing chemical processes like selective CO2 absorption and release, often employing amine-based sorbents [1]. Despite advancements, enhancing DAC efficiency remains a focal point for further development [2].

  2. Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU): CCU technologies capture CO2 emissions from industrial processes and convert them into valuable products, often through electrochemical conversion methods [3]. These applications span from synthetic fuel production to carbon-negative concrete production, emphasizing both emissions reduction and resource recovery [4].

  3. Biological CO2 Fixation: Leveraging biological systems such as microorganisms or plants, biological CO2 fixation involves capturing and utilizing CO2 [5]. Microbial carbon capture and utilization, for instance, employ engineered microbes to convert CO2 into bio-based products, finding applications in bioenergy production, agriculture, and wastewater treatment.

3.7.2 Case Studies

  1. Climeworks: Climeworks, a Swiss company, serves as a case study for DAC technology [6]. Their direct air capture plants capture CO2 for utilization in various applications such as greenhouse farming and carbonating beverages, showcasing the technical feasibility of DAC and its potential in niche markets [7].

  2. CarbonCure Technologies: CarbonCure Technologies offers a case study in CCU, focusing on carbonating concrete during production processes [8]. By injecting captured CO2 into the concrete mix, CarbonCure reduces emissions while enhancing concrete strength, highlighting the integration of CCU into traditional industries and its economic and environmental benefits [9].

  3. LanzaTech: LanzaTech's case study on biological CO2 fixation demonstrates the conversion of industrial waste gases into ethanol using microbial fermentation [10]. This approach underscores the potential of biological systems to transform CO2 into valuable fuels, thereby contributing to emissions reduction and sustainable fuel production.

Historical analyses encompassing reaction kinetics, conversion efficiency, transportation variables, environmental considerations, economic factors, optimization criteria, and CO2 utilization analysis provide a comprehensive understanding of CO2 utilization processes and their implications [11]. Case studies further illuminate the practical applications and potential avenues for advancement within the realm of CO2 utilization technologies [12].

3.7.3 CO2 Transportation Analysis.

Transporting carbon dioxide (CO2) over long distances necessitates the utilization of various methods, each with its unique advantages and challenges. Pipelines stand out as a widely adopted means of CO2 transport due to their efficiency in maintaining a continuous and controlled flow [1]. Additionally, stringent safety guidelines ensure the secure conveyance of CO2 through pipelines, although challenges related to construction costs and potential leaks persist [1].

  1. Pipelines: Pipelines serve as a cornerstone for CO2 transportation infrastructure, renowned for their efficiency and reliability [1]. They offer a continuous and controlled flow of CO2, ensuring efficient transport over vast distances [1]. Despite their efficacy, challenges such as construction costs and the risk of leaks necessitate rigorous monitoring and maintenance [1].

  2. Shipping: Marine tankers present an alternative for transporting CO2 over extended distances beyond the reach of pipelines [2]. While shipping offers high capacity and efficiency, challenges such as liquefaction costs and specialized tanker designs to maintain CO2 in liquid form persist [2]. Stringent adherence to safety protocols is imperative, particularly concerning spill prevention and mitigation [2].

  3. Trucking: Trucking provides flexibility for transporting CO2 over short to medium distances and areas lacking pipeline infrastructure [3]. Despite its viability for specific applications, trucking is less common due to higher costs per ton of CO2 transported and lower capacity [3]. Safety considerations encompass handling pressurized or liquefied CO2, while environmental impact relates to fuel consumption and emissions [3].

  4. Regulatory Compliance: The regulatory landscape governing CO2 transportation infrastructure poses challenges requiring meticulous compliance and permitting [4]. Rigorous regulations ensure safety, environmental protection, and public health throughout the transportation process [4]. Adhering to these regulations demands robust planning, monitoring, and reporting practices [4].

  5. Leakage and Safety Measures: Mitigating the risk of CO2 leakage during transportation is paramount, necessitating the implementation of advanced monitoring technologies and safety protocols [5]. Leak detection systems and real-time data analytics enhance safety measures, while emergency response plans ensure swift and effective intervention in case of incidents [5].

  6. Infrastructure Investment: Establishing and maintaining CO2 transportation infrastructure entail significant upfront investments in pipelines, ports, and storage facilities [6]. Securing funding and ensuring a viable business model remain ongoing challenges as the industry evolves and scales up [6].

  7. Public Perception and Community Engagement: Public perception and community engagement play pivotal roles in addressing infrastructure challenges. Proactive communication and transparent dissemination of safety measures foster trust and alleviate concerns among local communities. Engaging stakeholders in decision-making processes enhances the acceptance of CO2 transportation infrastructure projects [7].

CO2 transportation necessitates a multifaceted approach that balances efficiency with safety and environmental considerations. Pipelines, shipping, and trucking each offer distinct advantages and challenges, requiring careful evaluation based on specific transportation needs and circumstances. Regulatory compliance, leakage prevention, infrastructure investment, and community engagement are critical aspects that shape the success and acceptance of CO2 transportation initiatives. By addressing these challenges collaboratively and innovatively, the journey towards a sustainable CO2 transportation infrastructure can be realized [9].

This comprehensive analysis of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies aimed to identify effective methods for mitigating climate change and optimizing CO2 transportation from emission sources to utilization or storage sites [15]. By examining various CO2 utilization techniques, such as Direct Air Capture (DAC), Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU), and biological CO2 fixation, the study evaluated their potential to reduce emissions across diverse applications [69].

DAC technologies demonstrated consistent efficiency gains and broad applicability, positioning them favorably for addressing carbon emissions [10,11]. CCU techniques exhibited economic viability but with varying efficiency rates, emphasizing the importance of selecting the appropriate method based on industry needs [12,13]. Biological CO2 fixation offered environmental benefits and versatility in applications such as bioenergy production and wastewater treatment, with advancements in microbial activity and conversion rates [14,15].

In terms of CO2 transportation methods, the study assessed the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact of pipeline transport, shipping, and trucking [16,17]. Pipeline transport emerged as the most efficient and safe option for long-distance transport, while shipping and trucking presented viable alternatives with distinct advantages and challenges [18].

Additionally, the study addressed infrastructure challenges and emphasized the importance of regulatory compliance, safety measures, and proactive community engagement initiatives [19]. By acknowledging the limitations of the study, such as the reliance on secondary data sources, the findings highlight the need for continued research, innovation, and collaboration in advancing CO2 utilization and transportation technologies [2,3].

3.8 Findings.

The comprehensive analysis of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies yielded several key findings that contribute to the understanding of mitigating carbon emissions and optimizing CO2 transportation [4751].

Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies showcased considerable advancements, with improved efficiency and broad applicability across various industries [52,53]. These improvements position DAC as a promising solution for addressing carbon emissions. Meanwhile, Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) techniques demonstrated economic viability, albeit with varying efficiency rates [54,55]. This finding emphasizes the importance of selecting the appropriate CCU method based on specific industry needs for optimal results.

Biological CO2 fixation processes were found to offer versatility and environmental benefits, with advancements in microbial activity and conversion rates enhancing their potential in applications such as bioenergy production and wastewater treatment [56]. Additionally, the examination of CO2 transportation methods revealed that each mode—pipelines, shipping, and trucking—presents unique advantages and challenges in terms of efficiency, safety, and environmental impact [52,53].

Pipeline transport emerged as the most efficient and safe option for long-distance CO2 transport, while shipping and trucking provide viable alternatives for specific contexts and requirements [54,55]. Infrastructure challenges in CO2 transportation can be addressed through regulatory compliance, safety measures, and community engagement initiatives [56]. Ultimately, the study findings underscore the significance of continued research, innovation, and collaboration to further advance CO2 utilization and transportation technologies in the fight against climate change.

The findings of this study have several implications for future research, policy development, and industry practices in the field of CO2 utilization and transportation. By identifying the potential and limitations of various techniques, the study serves as a valuable resource for stakeholders to make informed decisions and collaborate on advancing these technologies.

Future research should focus on addressing the gaps identified in the study, such as investigating additional CO2 utilization and transportation methods and incorporating primary data sources. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, and case studies to gain firsthand insights from industry experts and practitioners [1]. Furthermore, researchers could explore the potential of integrating different technologies and methods to enhance overall efficiency and effectiveness in reducing carbon emissions [2,3].

In terms of policy development, policymakers should consider the study's findings when designing regulations and incentives that promote the adoption and advancement of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies [4]. This may include establishing standards for efficiency, safety, and environmental impact, as well as providing financial incentives and funding for research and development [5]. By creating a supportive policy environment, governments can encourage innovation and collaboration among industry stakeholders.

Industry professionals should also take note of the study's findings and adapt their practices accordingly [6,7]. This may involve investing in the most suitable CO2 utilization and transportation technologies for their specific needs and contexts, as well as engaging in partnerships and knowledge-sharing initiatives to drive innovation [8,9]. Additionally, industries can contribute to addressing infrastructure challenges by prioritizing safety measures, regulatory compliance, and proactive community engagement [10].

The findings of this study contribute to advancing the understanding of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies and their role in mitigating climate change. By informing future research, policy development, and industry practices, the study serves as a stepping stone toward the development of more effective and sustainable solutions to address the urgent need for carbon emissions reduction.

3.9 Contribution to Knowledge.

This paper makes significant strides in advancing the current understanding of CO2 transportation and utilization by exploring the historical evolution and advancements in various technologies [15]. Through a meticulous analysis of Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies, the paper demonstrates consistent efficiency gains and broad applicability, positioning these methods as promising solutions for addressing carbon emissions [6,7]. By examining the improvements in CO2 concentration for utilization applications, such as beverage carbonation, the paper further highlights the potential of DAC to cater to diverse industries and scenarios.

In the realm of Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) techniques, the paper delves into the varying efficiency rates and economic viability, emphasizing the need for tailored approaches based on industry-specific needs [8,9]. This analysis contributes to the understanding of how CCU technologies can be effectively integrated into various sectors, thus fostering the reduction of CO2 emissions and enhancing product quality, as demonstrated by case studies showcasing significant reductions in emissions and improvements in concrete strength.

Additionally, the exploration of biological CO2 fixation processes sheds light on the versatility and environmental benefits of these methods, underscoring their potential in applications such as bioenergy production and wastewater treatment [10,11]. By emphasizing the importance of considering factors influencing microbial activity, the paper contributes to the optimization of biological CO2 fixation for enhanced efficiency and effectiveness.

The examination of CO2 transportation methods, including pipelines, shipping, and trucking, serves as a critical component in understanding the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact associated with each mode [12,13]. This comprehensive analysis enables stakeholders to make informed decisions regarding the most suitable transportation method based on specific needs and contexts, ultimately contributing to the overall efficiency and sustainability of CO2 transportation.

Furthermore, the paper addresses the importance of mitigating infrastructure challenges through regulatory compliance, safety measures, and community engagement initiatives [14,15]. By highlighting the need for continued research, innovation, and collaboration, the paper emphasizes the significance of advancing CO2 utilization and transportation technologies to combat climate change.

This paper contributes to a more nuanced understanding of CO2 transportation and utilization by exploring the advancements and challenges across various technologies and methods. Through a comprehensive analysis of DAC, CCU, biological CO2 fixation, and transportation methods, the paper provides valuable insights into the factors that influence the efficiency, safety, and sustainability of these processes. As the global urgency to mitigate carbon emissions continues to grow, this paper serves as a crucial resource for researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals in advancing CO2 utilization and transportation technologies for a sustainable future.

4 Conclusion

The comprehensive analysis of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies highlights significant advancements and challenges in mitigating carbon dioxide emissions [1]. Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies demonstrate consistent efficiency gains and broad applicability, positioning them favorably for diverse utilization scenarios [2]. Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) technologies exhibit economic viability but with varying efficiency rates, emphasizing the importance of selecting the appropriate method based on industry needs [3]. Biological CO2 fixation offers environmental benefits but requires careful consideration of factors influencing microbial activity [4].

Moreover, the examination of CO2 transportation methods underscores the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact associated with each mode [5]. Pipeline transport emerges as the most efficient and safe option for long-distance transport, while shipping and trucking present viable alternatives with distinct advantages and challenges [1]. Infrastructure challenges have been addressed through regulatory compliance, safety measures, and proactive community engagement initiatives, highlighting the importance of holistic approaches in addressing CO2 emissions mitigation [2].

Overall, continued research, innovation, and collaboration will be essential in further advancing CO2 utilization and transportation technologies to effectively combat climate change [35].

This comprehensive study analyzed various CO2 utilization and transportation technologies to identify effective methods for mitigating carbon emissions and optimizing CO2 transportation from emission sources to utilization or storage sites [110]. The study examined the potential of Direct Air Capture (DAC), Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU), and biological CO2 fixation techniques in reducing emissions across diverse applications [1115]. Furthermore, it assessed the efficiency, safety, and environmental impact of different CO2 transportation methods, including pipelines, shipping, and trucking [16].

The findings of the study have significant implications for future research, policy development, and industry practices [1619]. The potential of DAC, CCU, and biological CO2 fixation processes, as well as the varying advantages and challenges of different CO2 transportation methods, provide a foundation for stakeholders to make informed decisions and collaborate on advancing these technologies [2024].

Future research should build upon the current study by investigating additional CO2 utilization and transportation methods, incorporating primary data sources, and exploring the potential of integrating different technologies [25,26]. Policymakers can utilize the study's findings to develop supportive regulations and incentives that encourage the adoption and advancement of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies [2729].

Industry professionals should consider the study's findings when selecting and investing in suitable CO2 utilization and transportation technologies [3032]. Engaging in partnerships and knowledge-sharing initiatives can further drive innovation and address the infrastructure challenges associated with CO2 transportation [3335]. By prioritizing safety measures, regulatory compliance, and proactive community engagement, industries can contribute to a sustainable future [3639].

This study's comprehensive analysis of CO2 utilization and transportation technologies provides valuable insights into the potential and limitations of various techniques and methods [4044]. By informing future research, policy development, and industry practices, the study serves as a catalyst for advancing the collective efforts to mitigate carbon emissions and achieve long-term sustainability [4547]. The study's findings emphasize the importance of continued research, innovation, and collaboration among stakeholders to address the urgent need for carbon emissions reduction and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.

Conflict of Interest

There are no conflicts of interest. This article does not include research in which human participants were involved. Informed consent is not applicable. This article does not include any research in which animal participants were involved.

Data Availability Statement

The authors attest that all data for this study are included in the paper.

Nomenclature

APEN =

Aspen Process Economic Analyser

BECCS =

bioenergy with carbon capture and storage

CO2 =

carbon dioxide

CCS =

carbon capture and storage

CCU =

carbon capture utilization

CCUS =

carbon capture utilization and storage

CH4 =

methane

DAC =

direct air capture

EOR =

enhanced oil recovery

GtCO2 =

gigatonnes of carbon dioxide

H2S =

hydrogen sufide

H2O =

water

LNG =

liquefied natural gas

LPG =

liquefied petroleum gas

N2 =

nitrogen

SO2 =

sulfur dioxide

TRL =

technology readiness levels

°C =

degree Celsius

$ =

dollar

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